Poultry Keeping
The Requirements of Poultry
Chicken Housing
Chickens can be kept at up to 9 birds per m2 with a stocking density of 7 hens per nest box. Each bird should have at least 15cm (6”) of perching space and perches should be made from 2” x 1” softwood with bevelled edges.
The housing should have room for a feed hopper and fountain drinker (useful in emergencies) and would benefit from being raised at least 20cm (10”) from the ground to help prevent rat entry and allow for cleaning and trapping under the house. Housing raised more than 20cm from the ground has the benefit of offering poultry a dry, shaded area which is always available for dust bathing.
Duck & Goose Housing
Waterfowl can be kept in standard poultry housing, but domesticated breeds as opposed to wildfowl prefer the entrance and exit at ground level, as they find it harder than chickens to jump up to an entrance or walk ramps. Straw bales can be improvised along with a wooden or metal sheet roof to create a hut in which they can live. This is a cheap and simple method of housing that works best when large fields are available so regular repositioning can occur. A standard shed with added ventilation is a good alternative.
Turkey Housing
For back garden or small scale turkey rearing, standard chicken houses are not big enough for growing, perching or laying. Standard sheds, converted barns, stables and improvised housing could all be used. Importantly all housing must offer shelter from the wind and the heat of the sun during the summer months. Ventilation must be given and pop holes should be large enough for the birds and wide or plentiful to allow all birds to enter or exit quickly. Improvised housing can include simple shelters made from straw bales and pole barns made from telegraph poles and steel sheeting. Back garden improvisations can include the use of wavy lap or featheredge fence panels and wooden pallets. For example two 5’ fence panels can be joined at a point using metal/wooden bracing to form a triangle with the ground, much like a standard chicken ark/fold unit. This can then be raised on to wooden pallets as shown in the photo. Improvisations like this are cheap and effective, but should be placed in a sheltered area. The pallets must be checked to remove protruding nails and rough edges that could cause wounding. The benefit of such shelters and sheds is that the turkeys are kept off the soil which will help prevent them getting the Blackhead parasite.
Ducks & Geese
All domestic duck breeds are derived from the native Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Muscovies however are not classed as ducks.
Most domestic geese are derived from the native Greylag Goose (Anser anser)
Sexing ducks:
Curled feathers: There are two common ways of identifying the sex of a duck. Firstly, when the birds are mature the drakes (male) will have feathers near the tail that curl upwards, the ducks(female) will not.
Voice: Ducks make a definite loud ‘Quack’ even at a young age, while drakes have a low pitched, rougher quack.
Sexing Geese:
Autosexing and sex linked: With certain breeds of Geese, such as the Pilgrim, the Goose (female) and Gander (male) have different plumage colour.
Size: Ganders are slightly bigger, with longer and thicker necks. Geese have more rounded and smoother heads than ganders.
Care:
Waterfowl are generally regarded as being far more hardy and disease resistant than chickens and turkeys and will put up with far dirtier and wetter conditions. They can be kept in small numbers with chickens but they consume vast quantities of water and make drinkers and bedding dirty very quickly which makes the living conditions less suited to chickens. Geese in particular ideally require large amounts of grassy pasture. Commercially it is not wise to raise the two species together as there are greater disease transmission risks. When raising ducklings or goslings it is vital to use a deep litter of wood shavings or other absorbent litter and to top up and stir when required as it will very quickly become saturated. Litter that has high moisture content can increase the likely hood of toxic fungi, encourage Coccidiosis and increase ammonia levels that could cause damage to the cornea and respiratory tract. I have witnessed perhaps 2 ducklings make more mess than 30 chicks in the same size area and in the same time scale.
Drinkers:
As ducks and geese consume vast quantities of water, to reduce management they ideally require a large drinking container with a ball valve. The drinker can then be linked to a mains supply or water butt. The drinker should not have a diameter greater than a standard 2 gallon bucket as they will otherwise use it for swimming. It is vital to raise the drinker off the ground on to a wide, wooden, stone or concrete base as drinkers left on or close to bare soil will silt up very quickly by birds that use the water as an aid to dibbing their beak into the ground in search of insects and grit.
Feed
Chicks and Poults
Chick crumbs with an added coccidostat (medication to prevent coccidiosis) should be fed to chicks up to 8 weeks. Poultry growers pellets or mash can be added around this time to ween the young bird off the crumbs. Poultry growers feed should be fed to birds up to 18 weeks of age. Finely ground mixed corn, known as chick corn can be fed to chicks as a supplement to their stable diet.
Laying Hens
A complete layers pellet or mash should be fed from point of lay to provide all their nutritional requirements for healthy egg laying.
Mixed corn and other straight feeds can be fed at any age and are ideally fed late in the evening as they take longer than other feeds to digest so provide fulfilment for the birds overnight. Because of there low nutritional value, high fibre and bland nature the straight feeds are commonly fed to ill birds to help them regain condition.
Kitchen scraps and green foods
These are a useful and tasty extra for the birds and help save a little on the feed bill.
They can include:
- Cooked potato peelings
- Carrot, leek, brussel sprouts and other vegetable peelings or whole vegetables
- Fruit such as apples and pears
- Fresh grass could form a large part of a free range birds diet, but do not feed grass cuttings that have been left to dry for a day as it they are difficult to digest and could cause the birds to suffer from impacted crops.
Duck and goose feed
Ducks and geese has slightly varying requirements to chickens. Ducklings in particular require a higher level of niacin in their diet meaning that standard chick crumbs may not be adequate. Duck and Goose starter crumbs are available and manufactured by some feed mills, for example Marriages of Chelmsford. However standard chicken layers pellets can be fed to laying ducks but growing birds can be fed duck and goose grower pellets. Kitchen scraps can be fed as usual.
Turkey feed
When feeding chicks be sure to use a turkey starter crumb rather than a standard chick crumb, as the Coccidiostat drug used in non organic crumbs is poisonous to turkeys. Turkey starter crumbs often use a drug called ACS to prevent Coccidiosis in young turkeys.
Straights / grains
Mixed corn and other straight feeds can be fed at any age and are ideally fed late in the evening as they take longer than other feeds to digest so provide fulfilment for the birds overnight. Wheat is high in protein but less so than flaked peas and Maize (corn) is high in energy which helps birds put on weight. They have a low nutritional value but high fibre content altogether making straight feeds a useful feed for ill birds to help them regain condition. Oats are a useful straight for feeding to birds when in moult as they can aid feather growth.
Supplements
Home remedies
Marmite is a very useful supplement that can be fed straight to poultry by smearing a little on their beaks for them to lick off. Marmite contains lots of B vitamins and is useful to help birds regain condition.A wet mash made from wheat germ, milk and marmite can be fed on occasion during winter to give birds energy and vitamins to help them regain condition, especially during a moult. The addition of crushed vitamin tablets can also be beneficial.
Poultry Spice is a powdered supplement that is widely available and consists of vitamins and minerals added to a powdered wheat base. The powder can be mixed with their standard feed to help birds regain condition during a moult.
Water
- Water must be fresh and preferably from the tap.
- Drinkers should be raised to prevent the birds fouling the water.
- Ducks should be given fresh water in an additional container. The water should be deep enough to allow them to dip their head under water to dislodge soil that may be trapped up their nostrils.
- Ducks do not require a pond. It is perfectly acceptable to use a container of water for cleaning their bill and a standard drinker.
Grit
Poultry require grit to aid digestion within the gizzard. Flint grits including chick, growers, hen and turkey are available as shown in the photo. Birds will obtain some grit from the ground they graze but extra should be given adlib to ensure they have enough.
Turkeys
Except quails, Turkeys are believed to be the dumbest of all poultry species; fortunately they do have an amusing inquisitive nature and will yield perhaps 80 eggs per year, which for those who don’t know, are edible and typically have a very thick white/tinted shell with pale brown spotting. If you wish to raise turkeys for the table, chicks are hatched in May for the Christmas season, a modern broad breasted bronze or white turkey will be oven ready by 25 weeks. Traditional breeds will not attain the weights of modern breeds within the same timescale. Norfolk Black, and Bronze are the best traditional alternatives. Bourbon Red, Buff, Pied, Lavender and others are now purely pet/exhibition breeds but they generally have more attractive colouring and could still be used domestically.
It is not advisable to keep Turkeys on the same premises as chickens, ducks, geese, pheasants or other poultry as they can pick up a parasite known as blackhead which can be carried by other forms of poultry usually without ill effect. Blackhead is a common widespread parasite throughout the UK and can potentially kill over 50 % of infected turkeys within 10 days of infection. Blackhead is a widespread problem and a threat to the commercial turkey industry. Unfortunately domestic poultry keepers are partly responsible for the spread of this parasite, which once on a site can remain for at least 10 years. It is unlikely that anyone keeping chickens with turkeys has avoided blackhead. However, commercially medication is available but not easily obtained by domestic poultry keepers.
Bedding Materials
Chicks and Growers
Newspapers can be used for day old to week old chicks to make a comfortable medium for the young birds to traverse. Alternatively fine woodshavings should be used. Be careful to not use dusty shavings as the dust can and will often be consumed by the chicks, leading to crop impaction, especially if they run out of food in the first week or two.
Growers and Adults
Straw
Straw is cheaper than wood shavings especially when bought by the bale, it also composts far more quickly after cleaning out. Full length straw does not have a high absorption rate and does not release moisture back into the atmosphere as well as wood shavings. Chopped straw, if it can be obtained would be a better alternative.
Woodshavings
Wood shavings are usually more expensive than straw but far longer lasting. Wood shavings have a high absorption rate and dry easily, especially when stirred or turned.
When raising ducks in sheds, or confined quarters they must have their bedding replaced regularly due to their messy nature. When raising ducklings it pays to use wood shavings and to stir them regularly.
Cockerels and Cocks
Young cockerels less than 18 weeks of age can be kept with mature cocks but over 18 weeks there is a great risk of fighting. More than one mature cock can be kept together providing there is plenty of room and if they are locked away in separate houses at night. However the birds are still likely to have the occasional scrap.
Much is dependant on individual experiences and the voracity of the particular bird. Small light breeds are typically more vicious and keen to fight whereas large docile breeds such as the Dorking or Brahma are less aggressive. Ideally it is better to keep all cockerels separate so there is no risk of injury from fighting.
Pens that are joined with a cockerel in each should have a solid barrier perhaps of corrugated steel to at least 2’ 60cm high along the dividing boundary as the cocks will fight through the mesh and even tear the wire. Therefore it is better to have a narrow strip of land between pens to prevent both fighting and accidental and unwanted cross breeding if a bird manages to scale the fence.
Most cockerels are not vicious towards people but it is important to always be careful around poultry. If you do have an aggressive cockerel do not retaliate if it attacks as this will only encourage fighting.
To remedy, the cockerel can be picked up stroked and generally made a fuss of and you may gain respect. If after several attempts it does not work the cockerel should be replaced or extra care should be taken. In general due to there fighting heritage the game breeds are typically the most pugnacious and should be avoided especially if young children have access to the birds.
Introducing New Birds
New birds should be quarantined separately from the flock for at least 2 weeks to ensure there are no hidden or developing illnesses. Once quarantine is over the new stock should be kept within close view of the main flock perhaps within a separate pen or aviary for one week to allow the birds to acclimatise to each other.
Birds can be mixed immediately but you may find that dominant hens and cockerels may fight or harass the new birds. But this phase will pass within a couple of days. To give your self the best chance of a successful immediate introduction introduce the birds to the house in the evening when the main flock has started to roost.
Wing Clipping
Domesticated poultry cannot truly fly but it is possible for them to fly a few feet high over short distances and they can on occasion scale fences with the aid of their feet but this is generally seen with young energetic birds or light flighty breeds such as the Old English Pheasant Fowl. Larger breeds such as the Lincolnshire Buff, Sussex or Orpington are very calm and will rarely try to jump or fly any substantial distance. To restrict the flight of the nimble breeds it is possible with a sharp pair of scissors to clip the wings. This is done by cutting back the 10 leading primary feathers on each wing which occur towards the tip. It is important to clip both wings as they will maintain some balance when they do try to fly which will help to prevent any injury. The feathers must not be cut all the way back as this can cause bleeding. New developing pin feathers must also be left uncut. The feathers will remain cut for several months or until a new moult replenishes them. Wing feathers develop quickly on chicks, in particular on females. The earliest that wing feathers can be safely cut is around 4 weeks of age but clipping at this age is rarely practiced or necessary. Due to the almost continuous moult that young birds are in, it would be necessary to re clip the primary wing feathers regularly.
The Poultry Pen
The cheapest and easiest way to create a pen is to use 1” (2.5cm) or 2” (5cm) wire mesh to 6’ (1.8m) high. The mesh should be tacked using ½” galvanised horse shoe nails (mesh tacks) to treated machined round or square posts to 3 or 4” (7.5 to 10cm) wide that are knocked using a post driver rather than a sledge hammer to 2’ (60cm) into the ground. The mesh should be set to 1’ (30cm) in to the ground to prevent foxes digging under. Concrete slabs, metal sheeting or stone should be laid to 1’ (30cm) under the gates to prevent foxes getting under or poultry getting out.
Alternatively electric net fencing to 4’ (1.2m) can be used above ground level only, to deter foxes from entering and poultry from escaping. Electric fencing is very successful but requires a battery and continued management.
Alternatively an aviary with a permanent mesh or netted roof could be used. To prevent foxes from digging under the frame, weld mesh to 1’ (30cm) wide should be attached to the bottom of the frame and laid out along the ground around the perimeter of the aviary.
Dustbathing
It is essential for birds to have a dry soil area to dust bathe. Birds dust bathe by throwing fine dry soil or sand through the feathers as a natural remedy to remove lice and mites. Birds will naturally find dry areas within the pen, around trees or under the house to dust bathe and may create several favourite areas. Alternatively it is possible to create a wooden framed sand pit within the pen. The pit could contain equal parts sand/soil or pure sharp sand and should be sheltered or covered. Dust bathing alone is very effective against external parasites, especially if the birds have dry dust bathing areas all year round even during the wet autumn and winter months. Bear in mind that dust bathing alone should not be relied upon to remove all external pests. An external cattle worming liquid such as Eprinex or Ivermectin drops applied externally are most effective at removing lice and mites. Dust powders appear less effective and are time consuming due to the need for continued application.
Selecting birds for breeding, what to look for?
Birds for the breeding pen should be carefully selected by strictly removing or culling those that are not up to your requirements or the requirements of the standard. In this case it will be possible to maintain or improve the utility or exhibition quality of your stock. Using substandard birds will yield a higher percentage of low quality offspring. However bear in mind when breeding rare breeds it is often hard to source stock in the first place. Would it be better to keep poor quality birds from a different strain to offer greater genetic diversity? This is debatable. If they are far from the appearance stated in the standard, or if it is clear another breed has been introduced they should not be used. If they were used the genetic diversity they offer would be lost in the time it would take correct the faults in their offspring by selection over several generations. But perhaps birds with minor faults can be used. In the case of rare colour varieties it is usually unavoidable to use birds with minor faults.
If you have plenty of stock, a good utility/exhibition strain or a common breed a strict approach to selection is essential.
Why is selection required?
- To maintain the appearance of a breed.
- To create your own strain, hybrid or breed
- To maintain or improve the egg laying ability, egg size, colour and shell quality
- To maintain or improve the meat producing ability
- To maintain or improve the feather quality on white ducks.
- To maintain or improve vigour and hardiness
- To exhibit birds
- To locate and eliminate pests, infection or disease
Take heed of the following information to select the best male and female breeding birds.
Things to bear in mind:
- Comb, face and wattles should be bright blood red
- Comb should not have any defect as described in the following article of comb faults.
- A large comb on a pullet will indicate a good layer. But excessively sized combs on cockerels are undesirable.
- Eyes. A lot can be determined from the eyes of a bird. Any frothing is a sign of a general infection and should be avoided. Dull eyes, with pale pigments and/or partially closed eye lids always indicate poor quality birds with low vigour. Birds with split or running pupils should be avoided. Bright, vibrant eyes with correct colour and fast reaction to close hand movement indicate a healthy, vigorous bird.
- There should be no sign of respiratory dysfunction either asthmatic or disease related. No wheezing or sneezing.
- Birds with a long elongated face and beak, giving a gull like appearance should not be used.
- Fast development, quick feathering and well developed comb or wattles on a young bird will indicate a potential future breeder.
- Behaviour: Should be energetic, while a chick or an adult the bird should react instantly when disturbed. A bold vigorous bird that fights for its food is a good choice.
- An Indicator of a vigorous, hard working bird is a well worn beak as opposed to long and overgrown. This shows that the bird is actively involved in looking for food on the range.
- The cockerel’s favourite hen should be an obvious option. Well worn, frayed or missing feathers on the back are an indicator.
- Birds that are naturally well manicured know how to look after themselves and are therefore a good choice.
- Avoid birds that always have dirty feathering around the vent.
- Birds that moult early during July or August are usually poor producers. Birds that continue to lay right through to October before moulting are the best layers and should be used for breeding.
- The bird should be true to standard with the correct colours, markings, features and body type, unless you intend to create a hybrid.
- Utility merits: For meat, select birds that have plenty of breast meat and little anywhere else. Select those that develop and reach required weight or sexual maturity early.
- When different strains are grown, select from those that feather up quickly when chicks. Quick feathering chicks should be hardier and will make better use of their feed. In intensive systems quick feathering helps to avoid breast blisters.
- Does the hen in question go broody often? Whether it does or not, it is up to you to decide whether it is a good trait. Do you want regular sitters from the offspring, or would you prefer more eggs.
- External parasites are not too much of an issue, but should be removed prior to being penned up for breeding.
- For eggs, select birds that lay prolifically with good, shell quality, size and colour. Choose a bird with good depth to the body.
- Measure the abdomen to select the hens that are likely to be the best layers.
- Select a big cockerel. It has been said the female offspring get there size and frame from the Sire.
- Avoid the following faults:
- Squirrel tail ( More than 90’ to the horizontal)
- Wry tail (Tail held to one side)
- Bow legged
- Knock kneed
- Crooked toes (Birds can be used, but should be avoided if plenty of stock is available)
- Feathers on leg when there shouldn’t be
- Incorrect number of toes
- Slipped wing
- Twisted wing
- Excessive feathering (Not useful if selecting for a meat strain)
Traditional Crosses
The following crosses are examples of those used and commercially advertised in the UK during the 1950’s.
Cock |
X |
Hen |
Sex linked |
Purpose |
Rhode Island Red |
X |
Light Sussex |
Yes |
Dual purpose |
Brown Leghorn |
X |
Light Sussex |
Yes |
Egg |
New Hampshire Red |
X |
Light Sussex |
Yes |
Dual purpose |
Dark Indian Game |
X |
Light Sussex |
Yes |
Table |
North Holland Blue |
X |
Light Sussex |
No |
Dual purpose |
White Plymouth Rock |
X |
Light Sussex |
No |
Dual purpose |
White Leghorn |
X |
Rhode Island Red |
No |
Egg |
Ancona |
X |
Rhode Island Red |
No |
Egg |
Brown Leghorn |
X |
Buff Plymouth Rock |
No |
Egg |
Houdan |
X |
White Leghorn |
No |
Egg |
The Leghorn was used in crossings with other renowned egg laying breeds to produce a light weight high egg laying pullet that had a low feed consumption.
Laying Condition
The quality of a hen can most easily be assessed when holding her. A good bird feels firm and full bodied but not fat when held. The breast bone will not be easily felt and there will not be any loose skin, or dirty feathering around the vent. A hen that can take care of herself is important. It is hard to describe the feel of a fit and healthy hen and the best advice is to get a feel for it by holding you birds to assess their condition whenever possible.
Measuring the abdomen while holding a hen is a useful way to assess whether a hen is in lay and whether she would make a reliable layer. While holding the bird by the legs with the body tucked under your arm, use your other hand to see how many fingers you can span between the pelvic bones and between the pelvic bone and the breast bone. As shown in the photos.
A bird which is not in lay will have a gap of 2 finger spans or less between the pelvic bones. When in full lay the distance will increase to 3 finger widths. 3 or more finger widths between the pelvic bones on large fowl indicate a good hen. A deep body is an important indicator of a good laying pullet/hen and measuring the distance between the breast bone and pelvic bones will give an indication. 4 or more finger widths are ideal.
Comb Faults
The following faults should where possible be avoided when exhibiting or breeding. However, when breeding rare and traditional breeds, it is often hard enough sourcing birds in the first place making many of these important only when selecting your best show birds.
- Fish tail
- Side sprigs
- Insufficient serrations on single combs
- Small serrations on single combs
- Thumb print
- Coarse texture
- Wavy comb
- Excessive size
- Poorly positioned leader
- Multiple leaders
- A comb that flops over to one side when the standard denotes it should be upright for the sex.
5th Toe Placement
In poultry the condition whereby birds have more than 4 toes is known as Polydactyly
Breeds with five toes: Dorking, Houdan, Faverolle, Lincolnshire Buff, Silkie and Sultan
When breeding 5 toe breeds, a great variation in placement and quality will be seen. For breeding and exhibiting purposes take heed of the following.
Ideally, the 5th toe should have a definite spacing between itself and the 4th toe. It should also point upwards and not be crooked.
Avoid using birds with:
- a poorly positioned fourth toe
- 4 or 6 toes
- webbing between the 4th and 5th toes
- Missing toe nails
- Deformed or crooked toes.
Birds that do not meet the standard can still be used as layers or for the table.
The following photos illustrate the variation in 4th and 5th toe placement that can occur.
Egg Production
Chickens come to Point Of Lay (POL) at between 16 and 30 weeks of age During their first year of age they are known as pullets. Most modern hybrids will come in to lay by their 18th week of age, where as certain traditional breeds or strains may take 24 - 30 weeks. Once in lay, poultry can lay consistently throughout much of spring and summer. Egg lay will slow from august and will generally come to a halt from the beginning of October. This is due to decreasing day length and light intensity. Egg lay will begin again from February, when increasing day length stimulates laying. Egg lay will also decrease or stop when the bird is in moult and losing condition or when ill. It is possible to increase the laying season by providing lighting within the poultry shed during the autumn and winter months, however this is costly and unsuitable for back garden poultry keepers and rarely practiced.
PersistenceChickens can lay at a high level for the first two to three years. From the third or fourth year onwards egg lay will decrease quite rapidly until the 5th/6th years when egg lay is almost non-existent. However, the egg laying persistence is largely dependent on the breed or the strain of the breed in question. Since the hybrid industry took over the pure breeds, the traditional pure breeds have been left in the hands of hobbyist. Much to the credit of the hobbyist the traditional breeds have survived. However, unfortunately hobby poultry keepers rarely have the time, space or inclination to select the breed for its utility traits. Instead, where selection has occurred it has been for the appearance of the breed or the egg colour. This has resulted in little or no selection for egg laying ability, most poultry keepers are unlikely to keep detailed egg laying records or select only the highest egg laying hens for breeding, instead poultry breeders have used what they have available for breeding. So some breeds no longer have the egg laying ability or persistence that they once had. This can be seen where Marans have been selected for their darkest egg colour only, which is easy to do, but this can result in negligible 2nd year egg lay. Alternatively light Sussex bred for exhibition no longer lay well. Even if the supplier states egg lay is good, the likely hood is the actual figures would state otherwise. Getting 3 eggs a week from a Sussex pullet is not acceptable. So consider carefully where you purchase your birds from.
Foxes
Latin Name: Vulpes vulpes
Length : Up to 1 metre
Habitat: Prefers Woodland
A common sight across Great Britain despite much persecution/sport in recent years. Foxes are mainly nocturnal and eat mainly small mammals, squirrels, rabbits, insects, eggs, grass, fruit dead animals and birds, including wild birds, chickens, pigeons, pheasants, ducks and turkeys.
There are few humane ways to catch a fox but it has been known that a fox can be deterred by human scent, particularly in rural areas where they are not quite as bold as they are in towns and cities.
Two methods are known to me. Firstly bags off human hair clippings, strategically placed around a poultry pen/house is said by some to be effective.
Secondly the use of a rope that is laid around the perimeter of the pen/house and run through the hands of the poultry keeper every night to transfer scent has also been successful to some.
Other than these humane deterrent methods it is important to lock birds away each night before night fall and let them out after sunrise. Meshed pens should have mesh, stone or metal sheeting buried to ideally 1’ (30cm) depth around the entire perimeter of a pen including below gates to prevent foxes from digging under, but this risk is likely to be greater when the poultry are far from human activity, perhaps next to a woodland where there is constant fox activity.
Dogs, snares or shotguns are other means of deterring or controlling foxes. However all, including dogs are harmful to poultry.
Great Britain Poultry Register
All premises with 50 or more poultry are obliged by law to register on the poultry register. 50 birds can consist of a single species or a mix of species and can include, chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, pheasants, partridges, quail, guinea fowl, pigeons raised for meat, ostriches, emus' and rheas. However it is largely nonsense for domestic poultry keepers with relatively small numbers of birds to register because as well as being another government way of monitoring the public it is impractical for DEFRA to enforce the legal requirement, particularly on small premises where numbers of birds may fluctuate regularly. In theory the register is a useful means of controlling any outbreaks in the UK and to alert poultry keepers to ensure the survival of the British poultry industry. The fact remains that there are many thousands of poultry keepers out there that have fewer than 50 birds, these birds themselves could carry and pass on infection to larger flocks not to mention wild birds that are completely uncontrollable.
There is no charge to register and full information can be found on the DEFRA website.
Laying Age
Chickens and ducks typically start laying from between 18 and 24 weeks of age. Laying will continue at high levels generally for up to 2 years of age and will decrease gradually from then on until as few as one or two eggs are laid per hen every week.
Life Span
The life expectancy of a chicken or duck can vary dependant on the condition they live in and the management principles implemented. Typically seven years would be a reasonable age. However a vigorous bird of good breeding that is given optimum living conditions could live into the teens.
Feather Sexing Chicks
The length of wing feathers in chicks of the same age naturally varies and randomly occurs. It is only possible to feather sex certain commercial hybrid strains that have been selected over several generation to ensure that only female chicks have long, well developed primary feathers and males underdeveloped primaries. When a hybrid with feather sexing ability is used it is possible to carry out feather sexing on day old chicks. When the wing of a day 
old chick is stretched out and observed as in the two pictures, there are two layers of feathers. Female chicks develop their wing feathers quicker than males and the lower layer of feathers are more developed than the upper layer. Only the top layer of feathers will be developed on male chicks. Where traditional breeds are concerned feather sexing is not fixed so male and female chicks could have developed or underdeveloped wing feathers.
Cockerel or Hen?
It is possible for both un-experienced and experienced poultry keepers to determine sex by secondary sexual features.
From as little as four weeks of age the sex of most breeds of chicken can be determined. The size of the wattles and comb and the stance and behaviour of the bird are all important in determining the sex. Cockerels have 
substantially more developed facial features such as the wattles and comb than a pullet and they will, but not always exhibit a more boisterous attitude when watched. Legs are generally longer and thicker on the males and the saddle hackle feathers (between the tail and saddle) are typically narrow, pointed and shiny on young male birds. Spurs are not an obvious indicator of gender at a young age.
Unfortunately the sex of some breeds will not be known until perhaps 12 weeks of age, this is particularly the case with breeds that have a triple or pea comb as there is little difference in size between sexes of young birds.
Auto sexing breeds can be sexed at day old because male and female chicks have different colours or markings.
Commercially, day olds are vent or feather sexed but these techniques should only be practiced by trained and experienced professionals.
Auto Sexing
Auto sexing breeds
Barred Plymouth Rock, Cuckoo Maran, Scots Grey, Dominique, Brussbar, Cambar, Legbar, Cream Crested Legbar, Rhodebar, Welbar, Wybar.
Autosexable breeds differ from sex linked breeds in that only one breed is involved. Sex linkage requires the crossing of two breeds to create chicks that can be sexed by the colour of their down. Chicks from auto sexing breeds are not 100% auto sexable as some may be of an in-between colour. The chicks of auto sexing breeds typically have a pale spot on the top of the head. Male chicks are always paler than female and will have a larger spot, females have more precise markings.
Sex Linkage
Sex linkage requires the crossing of two unique breeds to produce chicks that can be sexed by their colour.
To create a sex linked breed it is essential to genetically speaking, use a gold male crossed with a silver female. Therefore chicks derived from a Dark Indian Game male (gold) X Light Sussex female (silver) crossing will be sex linked. The female chicks will take after the sire and be dark, male chicks will take after the dam and be pale. If a light Sussex male is crossed with a Dark Indian Game female all the chicks will be pale as the silver gene of the Light Sussex is dominant.
Comb Types
The common comb types that exist include the following:
| Single comb: | The most common form of comb, they can be erect as on the Sussex, semi erect or folded such as on the Leghorn or Minorca. | |
| Rose: | these can be of varying size and can have leaders of varying length following the line of the neck or in line with the top of the comb. Rose combs are genetically dominant and can be seen on Old English Pheasant Fowl, Marsh Daisy, Hamburgh and the Rosecomb bantam | |
| Pea: | Also known as Triple as seen on Ixworth, Indian Game, Araucana and Sumatra. | |
| Cap: | An enlarged version of the Rose comb as seen on the Derbyshire Redcap. | |
| Horn: | As seen on Appenzeller Spitzhauben, Poland and La Fleche | |
| Leaf: | As seen on the French, Houdan breed. | |
| Cup: | These combs occur on the Sicillian Buttercup and the now believed extinct but closely related Flowerbird. | |
| Walnut: | Also known as cushion combs and seen on the Dutch/German Twenthe fowl and the Malay game. | |
| Mulberry: | As seen on Silkies |
Eggs
Deformed eggs with crinkly or thin shells and odd shapes or sizes can be laid at any time in a birds life but frequently occur in young pullets that are still developing their reproductive systems.
Double yolks can occur at any age but are most common in young hens. They are produced when two yolks are released accidentally into the oviduct prior to the albumen being added.
Odd shaped eggs and double yolks are rarely found in supermarkets as the grading process for perfection removes them. They are still edible but deformed or cracked shells will not retain freshness for as long.
Shell colour
Eggs come in a variety of colours depending on the breed that lays them, colours include: white, cream, tinted, brown, dark brown, blue and green.
The colour of the shell has no impact on the nutritional value or flavour of the egg.
Yolk colour
Yolk colour has no influence on the flavour or nutritional value of the egg. The colour is determined by certain pigments and can be influenced by the foods that are eaten. Grass, sunflower seeds, maize and other green vegetation aid in giving the yolk a yellow colour. Pale yellow rather than orange is the most natural yolk colour.
Storing for freshness
Eggs are ideally stored pointed end down at room temperature. In these conditions eggs can last for up to 28 days. If eggs are to be sold they must be sold by the 21st day to ensure the customer has a week to consume them.
To check for freshness, eggs can be placed in a glass of water, if the eggs sink they are fresh, if they float they are stale however freshness can also be determined once they have been cracked open on to a pan. A fresh egg cracked on to a pan will have a raised albumen surrounding the yolk and a thick white that remains close to the yolk, stale eggs have a watery white and no raised albumen. These watery whites occur if the eggs are old or have been stored at too high a temperature but old hens will also produce eggs with watery whites. Freshness can also be determined by candling.
Pecking Order
Within a flock of poultry a natural pecking order will form. In effect a hierarchy. At the top of the pecking order will be the cockerel followed by a dominant hen and a second dominant hen and so on. Typically birds at the top of the pecking order get the top perching positions and have most control. If a cockerel is introduced into a well established pecking order of hens there is a likely hood that the cockerel will be bullied to a lower pecking order at least to begin with especially if he still young. In a pecking order birds at the bottom should not get harassed or bullied to the extent that they lose condition. If they do, it is likely that the birds are overcrowded and are in serious competition for resources. This could be due to a lack of feeder, drinker and perching space.
Breeding
Firstly one must understand that many breeds of today are likely to have different utility traits to their equivalent ancestors. This is partly due to selective breeding which has been carried out over past decades by poultry enthusiasts to create exhibition quality stock.
Firstly if you intend to breed poultry they should be bred to match your requirements, either for egg lay, meat production or exhibition purposes. Alternatively you should consider the need to maintain breed standards where possible to prevent the loss of many old breeds and valuable bloodlines. To give yourself the best chance of success when breeding poultry, be sure to select only birds that match your desired requirements. It is not worth breeding all or any birds you have as results may be poor. Instead all birds that are not up to standard should be culled or kept in a separate flock. Birds that are hatched from the chosen breeders must be selectively culled to remove all birds that show deformities, odd colouring/markings, poor body conformation and growth rate, the wrong physical traits such as the wrong comb type and birds that have wry or squirrel tails.
However it is possible the focussed selection of birds for breeding over many years may have negatively affected their hardiness or fertility. It is often believed that the mongrel may be the better breeder and hardier bird due to hybrid vigour.
Selecting breeders
- They should conform to breed standards (If pure breeding)
- Birds must not be too heavy or too light
- Egg laying ability or meat producing ability should be considered
- Birds should be healthy, alert and active.
- Do not use birds that are prone to broodiness
- Do not use birds with deformities or poor feathering
- Do not consider exhibition stock as being the best breeding stock
Culling/Dispatching
The task of killing can be carried out by several means:
Dislocation of the neck by hand (least messy)
Dislocation of the neck by a humane lever operated wall mounted bird dispatcher.
Shooting in the head with an air rifle while the bird is held upside down with its head resting against the floor.
Exhibition or traditional stock
When searching for poultry the first concern should not be cost, but the quality and the proposed purpose of the birds. Quality however does not mean exhibition, a common misconception. However wonderful some show birds maybe, like some strains of Orpington, they are flawed in many ways.
Inbreeding and Line breeding is carried out by many exhibitors when they choose to maintain the quality or strain they have created, often avoiding the introduction of new blood. Unfortunately unless carefully carried out, degeneracy occurs and fertility and hardiness decreases.
There are many exhibition lines of Orpington’s, kept by a select few well known breeders that succeed in selling their eggs or birds at extortionate prices, often to gullible new comers to the hobby. I have been reliably informed that the fertility, egg quality and egg laying ability from these strains is very poor. Hatching success can often be poor and from some strains the very few chicks that do hatch, may temporarily have their heads arched backwards along their backs. This happens because the eggs are too small for the size of the breed, the chicks simply do not have room to grow. This is typically because there has been no selection for egg quality or for the traditional utility traits of the breed. However there is a lot of cross over between exhibition and utility stock and there is not a solid boundary dividing the two. It’s probably best to avoid buying birds from exhibition breeders that have been selectively breeding and inbreeding for more than a decade.
There’s plenty of opportunity to rant about how exhibitors select and breed their birds, but often the survival of many of these rare breeds such as the Dorking has been due to the work of Exhibitors. Certainly some rare breeds such as the Old English Pheasant Fowl are not selectively bred to the extent that the Orpington has been. So the exhibition stock of Old English Pheasant Fowl would be worthwhile sourcing, particularly as the birds would be true to standard.
If you are looking for a hardy bird with good fertility, egg quality and laying ability avoid exhibition stock or be very selective. Traditional breeding stock would be a cheaper and an all round better option. Many exhibition strains have excess or exaggerated feathering which is not a useful utility trait.
Importantly it is said the poultry breeder or hobbyist will have healthier and better quality stock than the exhibitor because they spend more time maintaining the birds rather than preparing them for shows.
Moulting
Moulting for the new poultry keeper may come as a shock and be suggestive of parasites or disease, but fortunately it is a natural process that occurs at various times in a bird’s life. The first moult occurs when a chick loses its down and generates its first baby feathers, these are later replaced by adult feathers. Adult birds do not moult at exactly the same time but they typically go in to moult during the summer months when it can last for 6 – 12 weeks. The severity of a moult can vary, but during a moult birds will lose condition and are more prone to infection and disease, combs may lose much of their bright red colour and birds may look isolated or dejected. Birds in moult require plenty of protein to regenerate feathers, if their standard ration proves inadequate they may lose excessive amounts of weight and die in extreme cases. A separate feeding of mixed corn or oats which is high in energy and a vitamin supplement with their layers ration will help them maintain weight. It is important to feed these supplements early in the moult, as supplements may be ineffective if the bird has already lost too much weight. Clean water and fresh bedding will help lower stress.